中华放射医学与防护杂志  2025, Vol. 45 Issue (9): 934-940   PDF    
放射诊断检查受检者接触屏蔽的研究现状与展望
刘丹丹1 , 张永县1 , 马梓轩1 , 刘毅安1 , 赵彤1 , 张童心1 , 徐辉2 , 孙全富2 , 牛延涛3     
1. 首都医科大学附属北京同仁医院放射科,北京 100730;
2. 中国疾病预防控制中心辐射防护与核安全医学所 辐射防护与核应急中国疾病预防控制中心重点实验室,北京 100088;
3. 首都医科大学附属北京友谊医院,北京 100050
[摘要] 放射诊断检查中存在电离辐射风险,遵循最优化和辐射防护领域“尽可能低的合理水平”(ALARA)原则实施的屏蔽防护,是减少受检者辐射剂量的措施之一。由于放射诊断检查模式和项目繁多、X射线线束特点和照射方式不同、成像设备图像质量和辐射剂量相关参数自动选择的方式各异和人体组织器官的辐射敏感性不同等,对临床实践中屏蔽防护的实施提出了较高的要求。本文就各类放射诊断检查中屏蔽用品、屏蔽方式、屏蔽效果以及在当前应用中的现状和存在问题进行了综述,以期为后续的相关研究和临床实践提供参考。
[关键词] 接触屏蔽    放射诊断    X射线    受检者    
Research status and future prospects of contact shielding for patients in diagnostic radiology
Liu Dandan1 , Zhang Yongxian1 , Ma Zixuan1 , Liu Yian1 , Zhao Tong1 , Zhang Tongxin1 , Xu Hui2 , Sun Quanfu2 , Niu Yantao3     
1. Department of Radiology, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100730, China;
2. Key Laboratory of Radiological Protection and Nuclear Emergency, China CDC, National Institute for Radiological Protection, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing 100088, China;
3. Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100050
[Abstract] There exist risks of ionizing radiation in radiodiagnosis examinations. Implementing shielding protection following the optimization and as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA) principles represents a measure to reduce radiation doses to patients. The implementation of shielding protection in clinical practices should meet high requirements due to variations in the modalities and items in radiodiagnosis examinations, the characteristics and irradiation method of X-ray beams, the method of automatic selection of image quality and radiation dose-related parameters by imaging equipment, the radiation sensitivity of human tissues and organs. This review introduced the shielding products, methods and effects in various radiodiagnosis examinations, as well as the current status and challenges in their applications, aiming to provide a reference for future related research and clinical practices.
[Key words] Contact shielding    Radiodiagnosis    X-rays    Patient    

放射诊断检查大多属于低剂量辐射(<100 mSv)[1],研究表明仍有一定的致癌风险,比如儿童CT检查[2-3]。我国[4]和一些国际标准[5]中,都明确规定了在进行放射诊断检查时,必须进行正当性判断,并采取有效的屏蔽防护措施,确保符合“尽可能低的合理水平”(as low as reasonably achievable, ALARA)原则。这种做法旨在平衡医疗效益与患者安全,确保辐射使用的合理性和安全性。

接触式屏蔽(contact shielding,CS)是将屏蔽材料置于受检者身体表面以衰减X射线对人体的辐射。长久以来,CS是放射诊断检查中操作人员降低受检者辐射剂量的主要措施之一。CS在射线照射范围内合理使用时,可以有效减少主射线对防护部位的直接照射,但需确保不会遮挡重要诊断信息的显示[6]。CS在成像野以外使用,则可降低体内的散漏射线对邻近器官或组织的辐射。然而,由于散射线强度远低于主射线束,屏蔽物放置不当引起自动曝光控制(automatic exposure control,AEC)失调可能导致辐射剂量增加,因此,CS的必要性受到了广泛讨论[7-10]

本文综述了放射诊断检查中CS防护的临床研究,旨在总结研究成果,评估屏蔽材料和各种检查类型中CS使用的效果,分析当前应用中的挑战,并探讨未来的发展方向,以期为相关研究和临床实践提供参考。

一、常规X射线摄影中接触式屏蔽的研究

常规X射线摄影中,使用CS减少性腺辐射剂量是最常见的做法[11],也是屏蔽防护的最初目的和起源[12]。随着X射线摄影设备的进步以及数字设备的应用,盆腔摄影中性腺辐射剂量降低了近60倍。成像野内对性腺进行精准的屏蔽,可使卵巢和睾丸器官剂量降低35%至85%[13]。由于卵巢位于远离中线的骨盆前面区域,骨盆结构又必须可见,因此屏蔽位置的错误识别高达34%[14-15],导致图像信息被遮挡,从而影响诊断结果。一些学者[6, 16-19]建议重新考虑或者停止在骨盆前后位摄影中使用性腺屏蔽,包括成年男性、女性以及儿童[14, 20-21]。国际放射防护委员会(International Commission on Radiological Protection, ICRP)[22]和国际原子能机构(International Atomic Energy Agency, IAEA)[23]认为在不影响诊断信息的前提下,应对距离主射线5 cm以内的性腺、乳腺和甲状腺进行防护。为减少屏蔽物对诊断信息的遮挡,Zahroh等[24]使用硅橡胶与铅混合的屏蔽材料,在静脉肾盂造影检查中对性腺进行屏蔽,性腺剂量降低66.9%,作者认为6 mm厚度的硅橡胶-铅图像不会产生伪影。针对成像野范围外的屏蔽防护,距离主射线束<5 cm的敏感器官[8],如胸部X射线摄影中对甲状腺进行屏蔽[25],甲状腺器官剂量可降低51% ~ 87%。男性性腺距离主射线束<5 cm时[8],同样需考虑使用CS[26]。距离主射线束>5 cm时,研究人员认为器官所受到的辐射剂量可以忽略不计[8, 27-28]。Hayre等[29-30]、Welborn和Lockwood[31]以及Elshami等[32-33]发现肘关节、手部和颈椎成像时,以下器官辐射剂量均有降低,分别为眼晶状体4% ~ 91%、甲状腺13%~89%、乳腺3%~99.9%、胸腺95%、脾脏2%~99.9%,卵巢9%~32.4%、睾丸6%~56.6%。因此,CS仍然是具有一定有效性的,然而需注意的是,在一些涉及复杂体位设计以及散射辐射较多的X射线摄影检查场景中,CS的应用方式必须经过谨慎评估。例如:左侧肘关节侧位摄影时[29-30],受检者只使用0.35 mmPb铅围裙时,辐射剂量变化差异明显:左眼晶状体剂量降低4%,右眼降低21%,但甲状腺增加了20%,而联合使用0.5 mmPb铅围脖后,左眼晶状体剂量未降低反而增加0.64%,右眼仅降低0.46%,不过甲状腺降低了89%。这充分说明了在实际应用中,合理选择和使用屏蔽措施至关重要,不同的屏蔽组合会对不同器官的辐射剂量产生截然不同的影响。

综上所述,尽管X射线摄影设备的进步以及成像技术的发展已经显著减少了辐射剂量,仍应充分利用主射线束投照方向和体位设计的特点,进一步减少器官辐射负担,优化X射线摄影的CS方式。

二、诊断和介入X射线透视检查中接触式屏蔽的研究

X射线透视检查出束时间长,受检者及近台操作人员所接受辐射剂量较高[34],因此,采取有效接触屏蔽防护措施以减少辐射风险显得尤为重要。Cha等[35]证明使用剂量降低纤维(dose reduction fiber,DRF)等新型屏蔽材料,可以在不影响图像质量的前提下有效降低器官剂量,在模体背面或是前后两侧同时放置DRF时,模型背部测得胸腺、腹部和性腺吸收剂量降低25.3% ~ 88.8%,在模体前面或是前后两侧同时放置DRF时,模型前部测得甲状腺、胸腺、腹部和性腺吸收剂量降低55.3% ~ 93.6%。张斌和陈英民[36]在腹部介入诊疗中对患者性腺组织区域放置0.5 mmPb装置可以减少90%以上的性腺吸收剂量。此类型检查有关患者CS的临床研究相对较少,大多集中在操作人员。研究表明,工作人员受到的散射辐射最主要的来源是受检者的散射,Chida[37]提出了针对介入的第4种外照射防护方法——优化患者辐射剂量,减少患者辐射的方法几乎与减少工作人员剂量的方法相同。患者剂量优化意味着患者永远不会接受超过必要的剂量,这也减少了工作人员接受的剂量。因此,如何在不影响图像质量和操作流程的前提下,将受检者剂量优化与工作人员的职业防护相结合,是介入放射诊疗中需要考虑的问题。

三、CT检查中接触式屏蔽的研究

CT检查作为医疗照射辐射剂量最大的来源[38],CS的应用和研究一直是辐射防护的热点问题。根据屏蔽物放置位置,CS分为成像野内CS和成像野外CS两类,前者以含铋防护用品为主,后者以铅制品为主。

铋与铅同为高原子序数的重金属,铋的密度略低于铅,但它相对无毒且使用灵活,易于制成薄片和其他形状,可适应特定的医学成像需求。但是,由于屏蔽物位于成像野内,使X射线吸收增加,导致该区域的CT值降低,会影响图像的对比度和清晰度[39\|42]。Mehnati等[43]对52篇铋屏蔽在CT中应用的文献进行Meta分析发现,铋屏蔽可以使眼晶状体剂量减少21% ~ 50% [(36.28±6.22)mGy],甲状腺剂量减少25% ~ 84%[(49.73±16.90)mGy],乳腺剂量减少15% ~ 57%[(39.05±11.98)mGy],甲状腺屏蔽较眼晶状体和乳腺屏蔽更有效。在图像质量方面,72.41%的研究认为使用铋屏蔽后图像质量可以接受,27.59%的研究认为对图像质量有负面影响。同时,研究发现图像噪声主要集中在屏蔽物正下方1 ~ 2 cm的位置,可以通过在铋屏蔽和体表之间放置一些材料来降低噪声[44-45]。Ciarmatori等[45]将铋屏蔽放置在距离模体表面4 cm处,眼晶状体剂量减少21%且未见明显伪影。Saba和Keshtkar等[46\|48]使用Cu-Bi混合材料进行CS防护,眼晶状体剂量降低46.97%、甲状腺降低50.2%、乳腺剂量降低52%,同时图像噪声增加较小。

成像野外使用铅防护用品,所能减少的散射剂量微乎其微,仅为0.003 mGy[7, 28],错误地放置屏蔽物可能引起AEC功能的调节不当,反倒带来剂量大幅增加47%、图像噪声指数增加80%、对比度下降20%[49-50]等不良后果。AEC功能失常原因主要包括屏蔽物与扫描区域的距离、螺距、扫描方向[41, 49, 51]或定位像扫描方式等。Larjava等[41]研究发现,定位像中屏蔽物位于扫描范围下界1 cm处,依赖定位像进行管电流调制的CT设备,在螺距1.531时扫描范围内距离下界9.7 cm处即出现管电流的明显增高,累积管电流量增加达217%。而依赖定位像和实时投影数据进行管电流调制的设备,同样定位像中屏蔽物位于扫描范围下界1 cm处时,管电流未见增加。Rautiainen等[49]的研究中,依据定位像和实时投影数据进行调制的设备,当螺距1.4时,扫描朝向屏蔽物时,屏蔽物在距离扫描野2.5 cm处使得容积CT剂量指数(volume CT dose index,CTDIvol)增加95.9%(2.9 mGy),剂量长度乘积(dose length product,DLP)增加86.2%(36.5 mGy · cm),7.5 cm时,DLP仍然增加了28.6%(25.2 mGy · cm)。其缘于设备AEC调制方式、超范围扫描、准直宽度以及动态准直技术[52-53]等因素与屏蔽物以及其屏蔽方式(前者[41]采用包裹式屏蔽,而后者[49]是单面屏蔽)相互作用的结果。

儿童和孕妇等辐射敏感人群CT检查的屏蔽防护受到格外关注。Di等[54]和Markart等[55]使用5岁儿童拟人模体,研究了头部扫描中铋屏蔽、自动管电流调制(automatic tube current modulation,ATCM)、自动管电压选择(automatic tube voltage modulation,ATVS)和基于器官的管电流调制(organ-based tube current modulation,OBTCM)技术对剂量和图像质量的影响,结果显示铋屏蔽与两种剂量调制技术联合应用时,眼晶状体剂量降低率最高,达到45% ~ 71%,在眼部与屏蔽之间加入泡沫塑料,对于颅内影像质量不会产生影响。Begano等[50]通过对孕妇拟人模体的研究发现,CT肺动脉造影检查中使用自动管电流管电压调制时,采用0.25 mmPb包裹式屏蔽,将屏蔽用品紧邻扫描范围下界时,与无屏蔽相比,孕妇有效剂量增加47%(0.9 mSv),胎儿辐射剂量也随之增加。将扫描范围由常规的32 cm缩短为22 cm时,屏蔽并未改变孕妇有效剂量,胎儿的吸收剂量略微降低。缩短CT扫描长度对降低对胎儿的辐射剂量影响最大,胎儿平均吸收剂量降低70%(0.07 mGy)。

综上所述,CT检查中应用CS需综合考虑检查对象的个体和检查部位差异、设备的调制方式以及具体的扫描参数。在特定情况下,结合剂量调制技术,可能比屏蔽防护更有效地降低辐射剂量。

四、乳腺X射线摄影中接触式屏蔽的研究

乳腺X射线摄影中CS的使用是一个复杂的议题[7]。国家职业卫生标准GBZ 130-2020[4]明确提出,进行乳腺X射线摄影时,需做好受检者甲状腺部位的防护。研究表明,0.25 mmPb甲状腺屏蔽防护可减少甲状腺的辐射剂量约4%[56],但同时屏蔽可能会导致乳腺组织不能完整显示,影响图像质量而导致重拍[56-57]。在乳腺X射线摄影中,对一侧乳腺进行检查时,对侧乳腺组织受到散射辐射其实比甲状腺更大。M等[58]使用0.25 mm铅橡胶防护罩对未成像侧乳腺进行防护,乳腺剂量减少了95%,胸骨骨髓剂量也略降低,但甲状腺、胸腺和肺组织剂量略有增高。而Koo和Lee[59]将0.5 mmPb的铅丙烯酸板放置在双侧乳腺中间,使非成像侧乳腺的表面辐射剂量降低了93%,但未出现周围组织器官剂量增加的现象。

综上所述,针对乳腺X射线摄影使用低能X射线的特点,其射线能量低,穿透能力弱,低原子序数低密度材质的屏蔽用品即可满足防护需求,又可减少二次散射辐射对周围组织器官的影响。

五、牙科X射线摄影中接触式屏蔽的研究

牙科X射线摄影中CS的研究,主要针对甲状腺和眼晶状体。上颌切牙X射线摄影时,0.5 mmPb手持式甲状腺防护屏可使甲状腺剂量降低75%[60]。口腔颌面计算机曲面体层扫描中,改良的防护布帘可降低颌面部腺体、眼晶状体、甲状腺等2%~68%的表面辐射剂量[61]。张立新等[62]分别对3种口腔成像模式进行研究,证实即使是传统的铅帽和铅围脖也可降低25%~70%的甲状腺剂量、21%~56%的眼晶状体剂量。因此,在口腔摄影中,对于临近器官采用CS是十分必要的。欧洲关于患者接触式屏蔽的专家共识中指出,头颅测量时,即使甲状腺位于成像野内,也可使用CS[63]。但是美国口腔颌面放射学会认为,由于甲状腺癌的风险可以忽略不计,建议在口内、全景、头影测量和锥形束计算机断层成像时不使用甲状腺屏蔽[64]。临床实践中是否可以完全取消CS,仍需对检查类型、屏蔽用品、设备特点等多种因素综合分析,才能给出最佳的防护方案。

六、放射诊断检查中接触式屏蔽材料的研究

传统铅屏蔽防护用品虽然具有优异的低能射线衰减效果,但其存在易产生较多二次辐射、重量大、使用不便、对环境有污染风险等缺点。针对这些缺点,研究人员开发了多种无铅屏蔽材料和复合材料,包括钨基复合材料[65]、钡基复合材料[66]、聚合物复合材料[46, 67]等。这些新型屏蔽材料的重量、内部结构、射线衰减能力和成本等是研发的重点[68-69]。钨与铅同样具有很高密度,可以在与铅同等厚度下达到相同的衰减效果[68],并且具有低毒性的良好环保效应。钡基[66]材料密度虽然低于铅和钨,但经过对出射光谱的有效透射率分析,其屏蔽效能超过95%,并进一步减轻了防护用品的重量和成本。研究人员将10% Bi+90% Cu与硅酮组成的复合屏蔽材料[46],利用铜在低能量下具有较高的质量衰减系数,而在高能量下质量衰减系数迅速降低的特点,减少了对高能光子的衰减和二次辐射的产生,保证了图像的高信噪比。随着制作工艺和纳米技术的进步,纳米复合材料(例如HDPE与纳米ZnO复合材料、75 wt%的eGaIn NDs/TPU纳米纤维垫[70-71])能提供接近甚至超过铅材料的屏蔽效果。Kim等[69, 72]通过静电纺丝法制成钨与聚合物复合材料,制成一种新型的、类似蝶翼的、仅0.1 mm厚的柔性纳米屏蔽材料,60 keV下屏蔽率为64.88%,0.3 mm厚时(0.296 mmPb)屏蔽率为90.10%,重量与现有的铅产品相比减少45%。但新材料缺点通常是成本较高,制造工艺复杂,限制了其大规模应用[73],一些新材料的长期稳定性和生物相容性尚未得到充分验证[74]

综上所述,未来屏蔽材料的发展方向应在保持高屏蔽效果的基础上,进一步降低成本、提升生产效率,并确保材料的长期安全性和可持续性。

七、屏蔽防护的未来展望

线性无阈(linear-no threshold,LNT)假说作为放射防护的理论基石,其核心观点——即使低剂量辐射也可能增加健康风险且风险与剂量呈线性关系,始终深刻影响着放射诊断检查的各个环节。在放射诊断中,不同成像模式的射线照射方式和参数选择、人体被检部位的组织器官特点、临床诊疗对影像质量的需求、受检者体位设计要求、屏蔽防护用品类型及其使用方法等都存在较大的差异,这使得CS的效果也存在显著不同,使用不当甚至可能会导致辐射剂量的大幅增加[75]

放射诊断临床实践中的CS是一个需要综合考量辐射安全、图像质量和操作便利性的复杂任务。基于当前存在的问题,在LNT假说的指导下,未来的研究可聚焦于以下几个关键方面:一是根据现有的成像设备和常见检查项目进行系统化的测量研究,由于低剂量辐射也可能带来风险,精准评价不同CS方式对受检者的防护效果就显得尤为重要,能为临床实践中CS措施提供数据支持,以最大程度降低受检者的辐射暴露。二是结合先进的硬件和软件技术,通过系统集成和智能算法优化,减少对附加屏蔽防护用品的依赖,提高放射诊断检查的安全性和流通量。例如,更新和维护X射线设备的质量保证(quality assurance, QA)和质量控制(quality control, QC)工作、提升成像设备性能,或者合理优化检查参数,这些举措不仅能在保证低辐射剂量的同时获得高质量的影像学信息,更是遵循LNT假说,将辐射风险控制在最低限度的具体实践。三是优化屏蔽装置或设施的设计方案,针对CT、DSA等不同成像模式以及各类检查项目的临床需求,精准制定防护用品的使用策略,因为低剂量辐射风险不容忽视,所以只有使防护措施更加贴合实际诊疗场景,才能有效提升防护效果,切实保障受检者的健康。四是开发新型屏蔽材料,注重屏蔽防护效果、环保、性价比高、便于清洁的材料。新型材料的研发应以进一步降低辐射剂量为目标,契合LNT假说对低剂量辐射风险管控的要求,从源头上提升放射诊断检查的安全性。五是加强放射工作人员的防护培训,提升对受检者的辐射防护技能和意识,亦是不可忽视的重要环节。工作人员对LNT假说有深刻理解并将其贯彻到实际操作中,能更好地在日常工作中落实各项防护措施,降低受检者的辐射风险。

利益冲突  无

作者贡献声明  刘丹丹和张永县负责论文撰写;马梓轩、刘毅安、赵彤和张童心负责文献调研;徐辉、孙全富和牛延涛指导论文撰写和修改

参考文献
[1]
Vaiserman A, Koliada A, Zabuga O, et al. Health impacts of low-dose ionizing radiation: current scientific debates and regulatory issues[J]. Dose Response, 2018, 16(3): 1559325818796331. DOI:10.1177/1559325818796331
[2]
Hauptmann M, Daniels RD, Cardis E, et al. Epidemiological studies of low-dose ionizing radiation and cancer: summary bias assessment and meta-analysis[J]. J Natl Cancer Inst Monogr, 2020, 2020(56): 188-200. DOI:10.1093/jncimonographs/lgaa010
[3]
牛亚婷, 苏垠平, 牛延涛, 等. 儿童CT扫描致白血病和脑瘤风险的队列研究Meta分析[J]. 中国辐射卫生, 2020, 29(1): 31-36.
Niu YT, Su YP, Niu YT, et al. Meta-analysis of cohort studies on radiation exposure from CT scans in childhood and subsequent cancer risk of leukaemia and brain tumors[J]. Chin J Radiol Health, 2020, 29(1): 31-36. DOI:10.13491/j.issn.1004-714X.2020.01.007
[4]
国家卫生健康委员会. GBZ 130-2020放射诊断放射防护要求[S]. 北京: 中国标准出版社, 2020.
National Health Commission of the People's Republic of China. GBZ 130-2020 Radiation protection requirements for radiological diagnosis[S]. Beijing: Standards Press of China, 2020.
[5]
Wilds EL. Radiation protection and safety of radiation sources: international basic safety standards-interim edition, general safety requirements part 3 No. GSR Part 3 (Interim)[J]. Health Phys, 2013, 104(2): 232-233. DOI:10.1097/HP.0b013e3182751a99
[6]
Kaplan SL, Magill D, Felice MA, et al. Female gonadal shielding with automatic exposure control increases radiation risks[J]. Pediatr Radiol, 2018, 48(2): 227-234. DOI:10.1007/s00247-017-3996-5
[7]
Candela-Juan C, Ciraj-Bjelac O, Sans Merce M, et al. Use of out-of-field contact shielding on patients in medical imaging: a review of current guidelines, recommendations and legislative documents[J]. Phys Med, 2021, 86: 44-56. DOI:10.1016/j.ejmp.2021.05.017
[8]
Hiles P, Sullivan Y, Benson E, et al. Guidance on using shielding on patients for diagnostic radiology applications[R]. London: BIR, 2020.
[9]
Kosik RO, Quek ST, Kan E, et al. APQS consensus regarding patient shielding during routine radiographic imaging[J]. Br J Radiol, 2021, 94(1123): 20210252. DOI:10.1259/bjr.20210252
[10]
Stearns BK, Seitz K, Folck QM. Exploring past to present shielding guidelines[J]. Radiol Technol, 2023, 95(2): 84-93.
[11]
Marsh RM, Silosky M. Patient shielding in diagnostic imaging: discontinuing a legacy practice[J]. AJR Am J Roentgenol, 2019, 212(4): 755-757. DOI:10.2214/AJR.18.20508
[12]
Shiralkar S, Rennie A, Snow M, et al. Doctors' knowledge of radiation exposure: questionnaire study[J]. BMJ, 2003, 327(7411): 371-372. DOI:10.1136/bmj.327.7411.371
[13]
Frush DP, Strauss KJ. Changing the practice of routine gonadal shielding during radiography: 'Y'?[J]. Pediatr Radiol, 2022, 52(1): 7-9. DOI:10.1007/s00247-021-05230-5
[14]
Karami V, Zabihzadeh M, Shams N, et al. Gonad shielding during pelvic radiography: a systematic review and meta-analysis[J]. Arch Iranian Med, 2017, 20(2): 113-123.
[15]
Freeman A. Paediatric gonad shielding in pelvic radiography: a systematic review and meta-analysis[J]. Radiography (Lond), 2022, 28(4): 964-972. DOI:10.1016/j.radi.2022.06.009
[16]
Lee MC, Lloyd J, Solomito MJ. Poor utility of gonadal shielding for pediatric pelvic radiographs[J]. Orthopedics, 2017, 40(4): e623-e627. DOI:10.3928/01477447-20170418-03
[17]
Strauss KJ, Gingold EL, Frush DP. Reconsidering the value of gonadal shielding during abdominal/pelvic radiography[J]. J Am Coll Radiol, 2017, 14(12): 1635-1636. DOI:10.1016/j.jacr.2017.06.018
[18]
Kumar A, Chau WW, Hung AL, et al. Gonadal shield: is it the Albatross hanging around the neck of developmental dysplasia of the hip research?[J]. J Child Orthop, 2018, 12(6): 606-613. DOI:10.1302/1863-2548.12.180133
[19]
Karami V, Zabihzadeh M, Shams N, et al. Evaluation of the prevalence and utility of gonad shielding in pediatrics undergoing pelvic X-ray[J]. Int J Pediatr, 2016, 4(11): 3735-3740. DOI:10.22038/ijp.2016.7589
[20]
Davies BH, Manning-Stanley AS, Hughes VJ, et al. The impact of gonad shielding in anteroposterior (AP) pelvis projections in an adult: A phantom study utilising digital radiography (DR)[J]. Radiography (Lond), 2020, 26(3): 240-247. DOI:10.1016/j.radi.2020.01.007
[21]
McKenney S, Gingold E, Zaidi H. Gonadal shielding should be discontinued for most diagnostic imaging exams[J]. Med Phys, 2019, 46(3): 1111-1114. DOI:10.1002/mp.13409
[22]
IC RP, Khong PL, Ringertz H, et al. ICRP publication 121: radiological protection in paediatric diagnostic and interventional radiology[J]. Ann ICRP, 2013, 42(2): 1-63. DOI:10.1016/j.icrp.2012.10.001
[23]
International Atomic Energy Agency. IAEA Safety Standards Series No. SSG-46. Radiation protection and safety in medical uses of ionizing radiation[R]. Vienna: IAEA, 2018.
[24]
Zahroh F, Anam C, Sutanto H, et al. Effect of silicone rubber-lead (SR-Pb) thickness on dose reduction and image quality as gonad shield[J]. J Biomed Phys Eng, 2020, 10(6): 699-706. DOI:10.31661/jbpe.v0i0.1912-1007
[25]
Alkhateeb SM, Bamusa A, Almutairi N, et al. Effectiveness of protective thyroid shield in chest X-ray imaging[J]. Radiat Phys Chem Oxf Engl, 1993, 2023: 110965. DOI:10.1016/j.radphyschem.2023.110965
[26]
Jeukens C, Kütterer G, Kicken PJ, et al. Gonad shielding in pelvic radiography: modern optimised X-ray systems might allow its discontinuation[J]. Insights Imaging, 2020, 11(1): 15. DOI:10.1186/s13244-019-0828-1
[27]
Hurley L, Alashban Y, Albeshan S, et al. The effect of breast shielding outside the field of view on breast entrance surface dose in axial X-ray examinations: a phantom study[J]. Diagn Interv Radiol, 2023, 29(3): 555-560. DOI:10.4274/dir.2023.232126
[28]
Yu L, Bruesewitz MR, Vrieze TJ, et al. Lead shielding in pediatric chest CT: effect of apron placement outside the scan volume on radiation dose reduction[J]. AJR Am J Roentgenol, 2019, 212(1): 151-156. DOI:10.2214/AJR.17.19405
[29]
Hayre CM, Bungay H, Jeffery C, et al. Can placing lead-rubber inferolateral to the light beam diaphragm limit ionising radiation to multiple radiosensitive organs?[J]. Radiography (Lond), 2018, 24(1): 15-21. DOI:10.1016/j.radi.2017.09.002
[30]
Hayre CM, Bungay H, Jeffery C. How effective are lead-rubber aprons in protecting radiosensitive organs from secondary ionizing radiation?[J]. Radiography (Lond), 2020, 26(4): e264-e269. DOI:10.1016/j.radi.2020.03.013
[31]
Welborn D, Lockwood P. Lead-rubber shielding effect on radiation dose to the gonads from a bilateral hand X-ray examination[J]. Radiography (Lond), 2022, 28(2): 360-365. DOI:10.1016/j.radi.2021.12.013
[32]
Elshami W, Abuzaid MM, Tekin HO. Effectiveness of breast and eye shielding during cervical spine radiography: an experimental study[J]. Risk Manag Healthc Policy, 2020, 13: 697-704. DOI:10.2147/RMHP.S257185
[33]
Elshami W, Tekin HO, Issa S, et al. Impact of eye and breast shielding on organ doses during cervical spine radiography: design and validation of mird computational phantom[J]. Front Public Health, 2021, 9: 751577. DOI:10.3389/fpubh.2021.751577
[34]
Paulo G, Bartal G, Vano E. Radiation dose of patients in fluoroscopically guided interventions: an Update[J]. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol, 2021, 44(6): 842-848. DOI:10.1007/s00270-020-02667-3
[35]
Cha H, Lee K, Park MS, et al. Shielding effect of radiation dose reduction fiber during the use of C-arm fluoroscopy: a phantom study[J]. J Radiat Res, 2020, 61(5): 705-711. DOI:10.1093/jrr/rraa060
[36]
张斌, 陈英民. 性腺防护在腹部介入诊疗过程中应用之初探[J]. 中国辐射卫生, 2016, 25(5): 552-554.
Zhang B, Chen YM. Preliminary study on the treatment process applied gonadal protection intervention in the abdomen[J]. Chin J Radiol Health, 2016, 25(5): 552-554. DOI:10.13491/j.cnki.issn.1004-714x.2016.05.020
[37]
Chida K. What are useful methods to reduce occupational radiation exposure among radiological medical workers, especially for interventional radiology personnel?[J]. Radiol Phys Technol, 2022, 15(2): 101-115. DOI:10.1007/s12194-022-00660-8
[38]
Smith AB, Dillon WP, Gould R, et al. Radiation dose-reduction strategies for neuroradiology CT protocols[J]. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol, 2007, 28(9): 1628-1632. DOI:10.3174/ajnr.A0814
[39]
Liao YL, Lai NK, Tyan YS, et al. Bismuth shield affecting CT image quality and radiation dose in adjacent and distant zones relative to shielding surface: A phantom study[J]. Biomed J, 2019, 42(5): 343-351. DOI:10.1016/j.bj.2019.04.004
[40]
Kosaka H, Monzen H, Amano M, et al. Radiation dose reduction to the eye lens in head CT using tungsten functional paper and organ-based tube current modulation[J]. Eur J Radiol, 2020, 124: 108814. DOI:10.1016/j.ejrad.2020.108814
[41]
Larjava H, Eneh C, Niiniviita HM. To shield or not to shield: shielding may have unintended effects on patient dose in CT[J]. Eur Radiol, 2024, 34(4): 2480-2486. DOI:10.1007/s00330-023-10211-3
[42]
Lee YH, Yang SH, Lin YK, et al. Eye shielding during head CT scans: Dose reduction and image quality evaluation[J]. Acad Radiol, 2020, 27(11): 1523-1530. DOI:10.1016/j.acra.2019.12.011
[43]
Mehnati P, Malekzadeh R, Sooteh MY. Use of bismuth shield for protection of superficial radiosensitive organs in patients undergoing computed tomography: a literature review and meta-analysis[J]. Radiol Phys Technol, 2019, 12(1): 6-25. DOI:10.1007/s12194-019-00500-2
[44]
牛延涛, 宋尧尧, 张永县, 等. 铋屏蔽对头颈部多层螺旋CT中眼晶状体辐射剂量的降低作用[J]. 中华放射医学与防护杂志, 2015, 35(2): 149-152.
Niu YT, Song YY, Zhang YX, et al. Radiation dose reduction to the lens of eye with bismuth shielding in head and neck MSCT[J]. Chin J Radiol Med Prot, 2015, 35(2): 149-152. DOI:10.3760/cma.j.issn.0254-5098.2015.02.018
[45]
Ciarmatori A, Nocetti L, Mistretta G, et al. Reducing absorbed dose to eye lenses in head CT examinations: the effect of bismuth shielding[J]. Australas Phys Eng Sci Med, 2016, 39(2): 583-589. DOI:10.1007/s13246-016-0445-y
[46]
Keshtkar M, Mosleh-Shirazi MA, Saba V. Assessment of the effectiveness of Saba shielding with the composition of Cu-Bi in neck CT imaging: a phantom and patient study[J]. J Radiol Prot, 2023, 43(4). DOI:10.1088/1361-6498/acffd4
[47]
Saba V, Keshtkar M. Targeted radiation energy modulation using Saba shielding reduces breast dose without degrading image quality during thoracic CT examinations[J]. Phys Med, 2019, 65: 238-246. DOI:10.1016/j.ejmp.2019.05.013
[48]
Keshtkar M, Blouri B, Mahmoudabadi A, et al. Eye radiation dose saving in head ct examinations using copper-bismuth radiation shield[J]. Radiat Prot Dosimetry, 2023, 199(2): 146-151. DOI:10.1093/rpd/ncac249
[49]
Rautiainen J, Juntunen M, Kotiaho AO. The effect of out-of-plane patient shielding on CT radiation exposure and tube current modulations: a phantom study across three vendors[J]. Radiat Prot Dosimetry, 2022, 198(4): 229-237. DOI:10.1093/rpd/ncac032
[50]
Begano D, Söderberg M, Bolejko A. To use or not use patient shielding on pregnant women undergoing CT pulmonary angiography: a phantom study[J]. Radiat Prot Dosimetry, 2020, 189(4): 458-465. DOI:10.1093/rpd/ncaa059
[51]
Merzan D, Nowik P, Poludniowski G, et al. Evaluating the impact of scan settings on automatic tube current modulation in CT using a novel phantom[J]. Br J Radiol, 2017, 90(1069): 20160308. DOI:10.1259/bjr.20160308
[52]
Booij R, Dijkshoorn ML, van Straten M. Efficacy of a dynamic collimator for overranging dose reduction in a second- and third-generation dual source CT scanner[J]. Eur Radiol, 2017, 27(9): 3618-3624. DOI:10.1007/s00330-017-4745-8
[53]
Yang K, Li Z, Li X, et al. Characterization of dynamic collimation mechanisms for helical CT scans with direct measurements[J]. Phys Med Biol, 2019, 64(21): 215006. DOI:10.1088/1361-6560/ab3eaa
[54]
Di Rosso J, Krasser A, Tschauner S, et al. Bismuth shielding in head computed tomography-still necessary?[J]. J Clin Med, 2023, 13(1): 25. DOI:10.3390/jcm13010025
[55]
Markart S, Fischer TS, Wildermuth S, et al. Organ-based tube current modulation and bismuth eye shielding in pediatric head computed tomography[J]. Pediatr Radiol, 2022, 52(13): 2584-2594. DOI:10.1007/s00247-022-05410-x
[56]
Pyka M, Eschle P, Sommer C, et al. Effect of thyroid shielding during mammography: measurements on phantom and patient as well as estimation with Monte Carlo simulation[J]. Eur Radiol Exp, 2018, 2: 14. DOI:10.1186/s41747-018-0042-9
[57]
Sechopoulos I, Hendrick RE. Mammography and the risk of thyroid cancer[J]. AJR Am J Roentgenol, 2012, 198(3): 705-707. DOI:10.2214/AJR.11.7225
[58]
M Ali R, England A, Mercer CE, et al. Impact of contralateral breast shielding on the risk of developing radiation-induced cancer from full-field digital mammography screening[J]. J Med Imaging Radiat Sci, 2019, 50(2): 331-336. DOI:10.1016/j.jmir.2019.02.005
[59]
Koo BY, Lee KS. Reduction of scattered radiation dose by X-ray shielding during mammography[J]. Radiat Phys Chem, 2020, 177: 109111. DOI:10.1016/j.radphyschem.2020.109111
[60]
Hoogeveen RC, Hazenoot B, Sanderink GC, et al. The value of thyroid shielding in intraoral radiography[J]. Dentomaxillofac Radiol, 2016, 45(5): 20150407. DOI:10.1259/dmfr.20150407
[61]
郭川兰, 李松辅, 李星锐, 等. 不同防护下口腔COPT受检者辐射剂量对比研究[J]. 现代医用影像学, 2020, 29(5): 880-882.
Guo CL, Li SF, Li XR, et al. Comparative study of radiation doses in COPT patients under different protections[J]. Mod Med Image, 2020, 29(5): 880-882.
[62]
张立新, 李向明, 张欣, 等. 口腔医学影像检查中甲状腺和晶状体的辐射防护研究[J]. 中国医学装备, 2023, 20(6): 33-37.
Zhang LX, Li XM, Zhang X, et al. Study on the radiation protection of thyroid and lens in the examination of oral medical imaging[J]. China Med Equip, 2023, 20(6): 33-37. DOI:10.3969/J.ISSN.1672-8270.2023.06.007
[63]
Hiles P, Gilligan P, Damilakis J, et al. European consensus on patient contact shielding[J]. Insights Imaging, 2021, 12(1): 194. DOI:10.1186/s13244-021-01085-4
[64]
Benavides E, Bhula A, Gohel A, et al. Patient shielding during dentomaxillofacial radiography: Recommendations from the American Academy of Oral and Maxillofacial Radiology[J]. J Am Dent Assoc, 2023, 154(9): 826-835. DOI:10.1016/j.adaj.2023.06.015
[65]
Akhlaghi P, Mohammadi N, Karimi-Shahri K, et al. Efficiency of tungsten-polymer composite shields on fetal dose reduction in chest CT scans[J]. Med Eng Phys, 2023, 118: 104008. DOI:10.1016/j.medengphy.2023.104008
[66]
Souza EG, Kruger K, Nascimento CD, et al. Development of lead-free radiation shielding material utilizing barium sulfate and magnesium oxide as fillers in addition cure liquid silicone rubber[J]. Polymers (Basel), 2023, 15(22): 4382. DOI:10.3390/polym15224382
[67]
仇天祎, 张国青, 王敏娟, 等. 环保型柔性医用X射线防护材料研制及其防护性能分析与优化[J]. 中华放射医学与防护杂志, 2023, 43(12): 1016-1021.
Qiu TY, Zhang GQ, Wang MJ, et al. Development of environmentally friendly flexible medical X-ray shielding materials and analysis and optimization of their protective performance[J]. Chin J Radiol Med Prot, 2023, 43(12): 1016-1021. DOI:10.3760/cma.j.cn112271-20230413-00117
[68]
Mansouri E, Mesbahi A, Malekzadeh R, et al. Shielding characteristics of nanocomposites for protection against X- and gamma rays in medical applications: effect of particle size, photon energy and nano-particle concentration[J]. Radiat Environ Biophys, 2020, 59(4): 583-600. DOI:10.1007/s00411-020-00865-8
[69]
Kim SC. Medical-radiation-shielding film fabricated by imitating the layered structure pattern of abalone shell and verification of its shielding effect[J]. Materials (Basel), 2023, 16(24): 7700. DOI:10.3390/ma16247700
[70]
Wang J, Wang K, Wu J, et al. Preparation of eGaIn NDs/TPU composites for X-ray radiation shielding based on electrostatic spinning technology[J]. Materials (Basel), 2024, 17(2): 272. DOI:10.3390/ma17020272
[71]
More CV, Alsayed Z, Badawi MS, et al. Polymeric composite materials for radiation shielding: a review[J]. Environ Chem Lett, 2021, 19(3): 2057-2090. DOI:10.1007/s10311-021-01189-9
[72]
Kim SC, Byun H. Development of ultra-thin radiation-shielding paper through nanofiber modeling of morpho butterfly wing structure[J]. Sci Rep, 2022, 12(1): 22532. DOI:10.1038/s41598-022-27174-y
[73]
Yao B, Hong W, Chen T, et al. Highly stretchable polymer composite with strain-enhanced electromagnetic interference shielding effectiveness[J]. Adv Mater, 2020, 32(14): e1907499. DOI:10.1002/adma.201907499
[74]
Kim Y, Park S, Seo Y. Enhanced X-ray shielding ability of polymer-nonleaded metal composites by multi-layer structuring[J]. Ind Eng Chem Res, 2015, 54(22): 5968-5973. DOI:10.1021/acs.iecr.5b00425
[75]
傅强, 王璐, 席悦, 等. 放射诊断受检者个人放射防护用品使用效果研究[J]. 中华放射医学与防护杂志, 2023, 43(6): 462-468.
Fu Q, Wang L, Xi Y, et al. Study on the effect of personal radiological protective equipment used in diagnostic radiology[J]. Chin J Radiol Med Prot, 2023, 43(6): 462-468. DOI:10.3760/cma.j.cn112271-20221021-00415