中华放射医学与防护杂志  2025, Vol. 45 Issue (10): 1025-1031   PDF    
线粒体在肠道辐射损伤病变中的作用及作为潜在防治靶点的研究进展
王涤凡1 , 蔡尚2     
1. 苏州大学苏州医学院,苏州 215004;
2. 苏州大学附属第二医院肿瘤诊疗中心(布拉格治疗中心)苏州市放射治疗学临床医学中心,苏州 215004
[摘要] 肠道辐射损伤(RⅢ)是放射治疗常见的并发症之一, 目前缺乏安全、有效的治疗手段。为防治RⅢ, 研究人员致力于其机制的研究, 发现线粒体在RⅢ病理改变中发挥作用, 其中线粒体介导活性氧生成、调控细胞凋亡与线粒体自噬等是关键环节。本综述旨在阐述RⅢ中线粒体在肠道辐射损伤病理改变中的作用, 并介绍线粒体作为潜在防治靶点的研究进展。
[关键词] 肠道辐射损伤    线粒体    活性氧    程序性死亡    线粒体自噬    
Role of mitochondria in pathological changes of radiation-induced intestinal injury and advances in research on mitochondria as potential targets for prevention and treatment
Wang Difan1 , Cai Shang2     
1. Suzhou Medical College, Soochow University, Suzhou 215004, China;
2. Oncology Center (PRaG Therapy Center), Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Clinical Medical Center for Radiotherapy of Suzhou, Suzhou 215004, China
[Abstract] Radiation-induced intestinal injury (RⅢ) is identified as a common complication of radiotherapy. However, there exists a lack of safe and effective treatment method. To address this issue, researchers have made great efforts to explore the mechanisms underlying RⅢ, revealing that mitochondria contribute to the pathological changes of RⅢ, with the mitochondria-mediated generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), the regulation of apoptosis, and mitochondrial autophagy representing key processes. This review aims to elucidate the role of mitochondria in pathological changes of RⅢ and to introduce the progress of research on mitochondria as potential targets for RⅢ prevention and treatment.
[Key words] Radiation-induced intestinal injury    Mitochondria    Reactive oxygen species    Apoptosis    Mitochondrial autophagy    

癌症已成为全球健康问题,预计到2030年,将有超过2 300万人受到癌症的影响[1]。放射治疗是癌症的重要治疗方式,将射线的能量转移到癌细胞,破坏其遗传物质,从而阻止进一步分裂和增殖,但放疗对邻近正常组织和器官的损害仍无法避免[2-3]。在腹、盆部放疗中,由于解剖因素不可避免地使肠道组织受到照射,而作为快速分裂的组织,肠上皮细胞特别容易受到电离辐射的影响[4]。肠道辐射损伤(radiation-induced intestinal injury,RⅢ)是辐射暴露最常见的后果之一[5]。RⅢ不仅可能中断放疗,还可能影响患者的生活质量。研究证实线粒体在辐射效应中起着重要作用。本文将综述线粒体在RⅢ病理过程中的作用及其作为防治药物靶点的研究进展。

一、线粒体的结构、功能及在辐射损伤病理过程中的作用

线粒体一般呈短棒状或圆球状,在能量需求高的区域分布密集。线粒体由脂双层膜构成,其中内膜向内突出形成嵴,内含大量与呼吸作用相关的酶以及参与物质转运的蛋白质载体和通道[6]。如腺苷酸活化蛋白激酶(AMP-activated protein kinase,AMPK),是AMP依赖的蛋白激酶。AMPK可以通过磷酸化线粒体呼吸链中的关键蛋白,增强线粒体的呼吸功能,提高三磷酸腺苷(ATP)的生成效率[7]。同时,在线粒体基质中配备了抗氧化防御系统,如谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶(glutathione peroxidase,GPX),超氧化物歧化酶(superoxide dismutase,SOD)和特定的DNA修复系统[8]

X射线照射会导致线粒体结构和功能的改变,如线粒体空泡化、嵴断裂、肿胀,以及ATP合成速率下降和活性氧(reactive oxygen species,ROS)产生增多[9]。γ射线照射会导致脂质过氧化标志物丙二醛(malondialdehyde,MDA)含量显著增加,抑制SOD、GPX等功能蛋白质的活性[10]。同时,γ照射引起线粒体基因组不稳定[11]。碳离子照射可以诱导线粒体收缩和线粒体膜电位降低,细胞凋亡及线粒体自噬增加[12]。本文提及的照射主要是指X射线与γ射线。

1.线粒体与能量代谢及活性氧生成:线粒体是内源性氧自由基的主要产生源[13]。过量ROS是细胞损伤和炎症反应最重要的致病因素之一[14]

电离辐射可以诱导自由基生成,使机体内ROS的产生与清除失衡,导致ROS蓄积而引起氧化应激损伤[15],从而引起线粒体功能障碍,催化产生更多ROS[16]。Kobashigawa等[17]发现,照射后还原型烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸(NADH)脱氢酶活性降低,出现线粒体功能障碍。此功能障碍与ROS水平的显著增加和线粒体DNA氧化损伤有关,并将引起ROS产生不断增加,形成恶性循环[18]。Wang等[19]研究表明,放射可诱导西藏小猪的肠组织ATP、ADP等含量减少,且辐射剂量和DNA损伤程度存在显著相关性。RⅢ的机制之一是放射可经血管损伤和组织重塑诱发缺氧,促进肠组织ROS的产生,进而激活下游通路导致炎症、凋亡等发生[20]

2.线粒体与细胞程序性死亡:线粒体是调控凋亡信号的核心细胞器。该过程涉及内源性、外源性和其他形式如神经酰胺依赖性途径。各途径最终都激活半胱氨酸蛋白酶(Caspases)-3、6、7引发级联反应,从而诱发凋亡[21]。放射可以激活线粒体各凋亡途径。

(1) 内源性细胞凋亡:内源性细胞凋亡始于p53、Bcl-2拮抗剂Bak和Bcl-2结合蛋白Bax激活,同时伴有线粒体外膜通透化(mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization,MOMP)和线粒体膜电位降低[22]。在细胞死亡时,Bcl-2蛋白传递信号,MOMP增加,线粒体释放细胞色素C(cytochrome C,Cytc),激活Caspases。放射可以诱导DNA双链断裂,激活p53,调节Bcl-2相关蛋白[23],触发Cytc释放,形成细胞凋亡体并激活Caspase-9,从而启动后续通路[22]。放射还可显著上调小鼠空肠和结肠组织中线粒体凋亡通路Caspase-3、8、9和10的基因表达[24]。Qi等[25]的研究显示,在照射后小鼠结肠组织Cytc、Bax表达明显升高,Bcl-2表达显著降低,进一步证明辐射通过线粒体途径诱导结肠细胞凋亡。

(2) 外源性细胞凋亡:外源性细胞凋亡依赖于外部损伤信号传导,通过肿瘤坏死因子(tumor necrosis factor,TNF)家族配体与质膜的死亡受体结合,激活Caspase-8[26]。放射可诱导外源性细胞凋亡中死亡受体Fas(CD95)表达的增加,随后激活Bax、Bak以及线粒体凋亡细胞死亡途径[27]。照射导致的内源性和外源性细胞凋亡途径在MOMP早期汇聚。

(3) 神经酰胺依赖性途径凋亡:神经酰胺依赖性途径始于鞘磷脂的水解,生成神经酰胺,激活Bax、Bak [28]。神经酰胺充当第二信使,激活Caspase级联反应。Sia等[26]发现,放射可以启动神经酰胺依赖性凋亡途径,激活酸性鞘磷脂酶,通过鞘磷脂的水解产生神经酰胺。暴露于射线会导致鞘脂在质膜上积聚[29]。初始阶段,其被加工成两种脂质信使,激活Bax和Bak。神经酰胺可通过触发Bax依赖性MOMP和靶向电压依赖性阴离子通道2来诱导细胞凋亡[22]

3.线粒体参与的免疫原性细胞死亡:免疫原性细胞死亡是一种由细胞应激源驱动的调节性细胞死亡,包括化疗、放射等。放射会导致线粒体参与的免疫原性细胞死亡途径增加。持续增加的MOMP还会导致线粒体DNA(mitochondrial DNA,mtDNA)释放到细胞质中,被细胞内的环鸟苷酸腺苷酸合成酶所识别,从而诱导环鸟苷酸腺苷酸合成酶-干扰素基因刺激因子炎症通路的激活,启动体内外的免疫和炎症反应[30]。大量钙离子内流激活钙蛋白酶和钙调磷酸酶,进而抑制Bcl-2表达、激活Bax表达,促进Cytc释放,促进细胞凋亡。

4.线粒体自噬:线粒体自噬是机体消除线粒体功能失调、维持线粒体环境平衡的重要途径,可由过度氧化应激、mtDNA突变或蛋白质损伤导致的线粒体功能障碍引发[31-32]。线粒体损伤后,为恢复稳态,细胞利用自噬机制选择性包裹和降解细胞内受损的线粒体[33]。放射可以激活细胞中的Parkin蛋白,Parkin是一种由PARK2基因编码的E3泛素连接酶,导致广泛的半胱天冬酶依赖性细胞凋亡。通过线粒体自噬去除功能失调的线粒体可以抑制ROS生成,并抑制mtDNA向细胞周围和全身的释放[34]

在文献中发现,线粒体自噬在细胞辐射敏感性上有着双重影响。一方面,线粒体自噬可以增强癌细胞的辐射抵抗力。通过减少线粒体数量、抑制氧化磷酸化和促进糖酵解,增加代谢产物的重复利用,满足癌细胞代谢需求,提高辐射敏感性[35]。Yang等[36]证明,线粒体自噬可以抵抗放射引起的氧化应激,抑制线粒体自噬可以增加ROS的积累并诱导癌细胞死亡。

另一种观点认为线粒体自噬增加癌细胞的辐射敏感性。放射通过触发线粒体自噬增强癌细胞的DNA损伤,Parkin和BNIP3的表达变化影响线粒体形态和功能,增加辐射诱导的DNA损伤[37]。Yu等[38]发现辐射可以诱导细胞自噬,导致细胞内ROS水平升高和线粒体损伤增加,即线粒体自噬增加了细胞对放射的敏感性。此外,线粒体自噬不足会导致有害物质的积累和细胞凋亡或死亡[39]。Fan等[40]还证明,早期氧化应激增强线粒体自噬以保护细胞,但细胞在长期氧化暴露后出现不可逆的损伤,线粒体自噬将随之减少,细胞凋亡则会相应增加。

二、靶向线粒体研发辐射损伤防治药物的研究进展

近年来,多种靶向线粒体的辐射防护药物被开发和研究,包括线粒体靶向型抗氧化剂、线粒体凋亡通路靶向调节剂、以及线粒体自噬靶向调节剂等。

1.线粒体靶向型抗氧化剂

(1) 奥帕尼布(Opaganib):鞘氨醇激酶(sphingosine kinase, SphK)有两种亚型——SphK1和SphK2,其中SphK2主要定位于线粒体、内质网和细胞核中,其在线粒体中的作用主要是通过其生成的1-磷酸鞘氨醇(sphingosine-1-phosphate,S1P)来实现[41]。S1P可能通过减少膜去极化、影响Cytc氧化酶组装和呼吸链功能来调节线粒体功能[42]。Opaganib是一种具有口服活性的SphK2同工酶选择性抑制剂[43]。Maines等[44]研究发现,Opaganib可以保持放射后的肠道绒毛高度,减少肠道损伤。该研究发现,Opaganib对肠道的辐射保护作用在机制上与其在小肠中的积累、S1P升高有关。同时,发现放射前后使用Opaganib都可提供良好效果,这为放疗联合使用以及作为预防辐射暴露风险提供了可能,为后续作为治疗药物提供了新的思路。

(2) 辅酶Q10(coenzyme Q10,CoQ10):即泛醌,在人体内由酪氨酸产生[45]。CoQ10是一种脂质分子,在线粒体内充当电子传递链的载体,也含有抗氧化特性。因此,补充CoQ10对与线粒体相关的疾病非常有用[46]。Mohamed和Said[47]的实验发现CoQ10通过减少脂质过氧化、增加抗氧化酶过氧化氢酶活性和降低谷胱甘肽水平来减轻放射诱导的肠道损伤。同时,CoQ10还通过下调肠道NF-κB表达来抵消放射暴露后介导的炎症反应。

(3) 白藜芦醇:白藜芦醇是一种天然多酚化合物,存在于各种水果、植物中。它是一种直接抗氧化剂,Zhang等[48]发现白藜芦醇通过氢原子转移和电子转移机制清除各种ROS,从而保护肠道细胞免受氧化损伤。白藜芦醇还增强各种线粒体内抗氧化防御酶的表达,如过氧化氢酶、谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶和超氧化物歧化酶,从而对肠道细胞起到放射防护作用[49]。Qin等[50]发现白藜芦醇通过激活AMPK等信号通路,调节线粒体代谢,进而调节线粒体解偶联蛋白的表达和功能,增加线粒体的生物合成和能量代谢,保护肠上皮细胞免受辐射诱导的损伤。

(4) 牛磺酸:牛磺酸是几乎所有组织中最丰富的氨基酸之一。沙桐[51]发现牛磺酸可能通过调节线粒体,抑制了放射后小肠上皮细胞内ROS的产生。牛磺酸通过激活其上游Nrf2信号通路,增加细胞内过氧化氢酶和谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶的表达。照射后,肠道细胞中的Nrf2/HO-1信号通路被激活,牛磺酸增加肠道细胞中Nrf2和HO-1的表达,增加抗氧化应激分子表达,减少ROS积累。以上证据表明,牛磺酸不仅减少放射后小肠细胞中ROS的生成,也可以清除多余的ROS,减轻氧化负荷,调节放射引起的氧化还原失衡。

(5) MGN-3:MGN-3是米糠中的阿拉伯木聚糖,来源于部分水解的米糠和香菇酶[52]。多个研究报道,MGN-3具有强大的抗氧化能力,是一种潜在的辐射保护剂[53-54]。Zhao等[55]发现放射显著降低了空肠和结肠内线粒体呼吸链复合物Ⅰ、Ⅲ、Ⅳ和Ⅴ的活性,而MGN-3则恢复了这些复合物的正常活性、增强了mtDNA表达,并降低了氧化应激和炎症反应指标。因此,MGN-3通过线粒体依赖性方式减弱了辐射诱导的小鼠肠上皮氧化应激、炎症反应、细胞凋亡、肠道通透性和屏障功能的变化。

(6) 氢气:氢气的优势在于其副作用最小、不干扰正常代谢,极小的分子量使其能够轻松穿透细胞膜并靶向细胞器。Qiu等[24]对氢气对放射后肠道的影响做了研究,发现氢有助于维持肠黏膜的完整性,减少肠黏膜损伤,部分恢复了肠道的抗氧化能力,抑制了ROS的激增。有研究发现氢气还通过调控细胞凋亡协同治疗RⅢ[56]。氢气阻止放射后的肠道细胞释放Cytc并抑制Caspase-3、9和DNA修复酶的活性,阻止了Bax的表达增加和Bcl-2的表达降低[57]。因此,氢气处理可以减轻肠道损伤,改善肠道功能、抑制细胞凋亡,维持肠上皮细胞增殖。

(7) 线粒体喹诺(mitoquinol,MitoQ):MitoQ是一种新的靶向线粒体的抗氧化剂。Dawoud等[58]发现MitoQ及其基于透明质酸的纳米制剂(MitoQ/HA-NP)使肠道线粒体GPX和TAC升高、MDA降低,这表明MitoQ/HA-NP处理显著清除了ROS,减轻辐射诱导的小鼠肠道损伤,是一种高效的线粒体靶向的抗氧化剂[59]

(8) 线粒体动力相关蛋白1(dynamin-related protein 1,Drp1):Drp1是一种GTP酶,是控制线粒体分裂的关键蛋白质[60]。Drp1的各种修饰也参与调节线粒体形态、功能、代谢和线粒体质量的其他方面,这表明Drp1在调节线粒体质量控制方面发挥着重要作用[61]。Guo等[62]发现常规剂量照射后,肠道细胞中Drp1的表达增加,导致线粒体裂变和随后的细胞死亡,而超高剂量率照射(FLASH-radiotherapy,FLASH-RT)后,Drp-1表达没有显著变化。Duan等[63]发现激活的Drp1可能会影响泛醌的生物合成,并破坏线粒体呼吸链,激活的Drp1也可能通过抑制线粒体谷氨酸和谷胱甘肽代谢途径来减少ROS清除,起到防护作用。因此,针对Drp1蛋白的抑制剂是RⅢ的潜在靶点。

(9) 线粒体融合蛋白MFN1(mitofusion-1):线粒体通过不断融合和分裂维持正常功能,其中线粒体外膜融合由线粒体融合蛋白(MFN1和MFN2)完成[64]。Guo等[65]发现了一种小分子激动剂S89,它通过靶向内源性MFN1专门促进线粒体融合。S89通过增强内源性MFN1,恢复由线粒体DNA突变、氧化应激引起的线粒体和细胞缺陷。虽然现在没有报道对RⅢ的修复作用,但作用于线粒体融合蛋白的相关激动剂仍可作为有前景的治疗靶点。

2.线粒体凋亡通路靶向调节剂:抑制依赖线粒体途径的细胞凋亡被证明是一种有效的放射治疗策略。某些抑制剂能够特异性针对促凋亡因子,减少放射诱发的凋亡,产生治疗效果。

(1) 枸杞多糖:枸杞多糖是从枸杞中提纯得到的活性物质。张磊[66]发现枸杞多糖可通过调节Bax/Bcl-2比值、控制线粒体膜电位和影响Caspase表达3种方式有效减少细胞凋亡[67-69]。枸杞多糖还能抑制中性粒细胞积累和细胞内黏附分子表达,调节TNF-α水平和改善肠道通透性,保护肠道[70]

(2) 姜黄素:姜黄素是一种植物提取物,安全性高。陶珮等[71]研究发现,姜黄素可以通过降低细胞内Ca2+浓度、促进抗凋亡基因Bcl-2表达以及抑制caspase-3活化和Bax基因表达,从而调节线粒体膜电位,进而调节细胞凋亡。Akpolat等[72]研究也发现姜黄素可改善线粒体功能障碍,缓解肠道黏膜损伤及杯状细胞增加,对辐射引起的肠道损伤具有保护作用。

(3) 香草酸:香草酸是多种中药的有效成分。陈亚萍等[73]在给照射后小鼠给予香草酸后,结肠组织中Cytc、Bax表达显著降低,而Bcl-2表达显著升高。通过实验发现香草酸具有抑制细胞凋亡的作用,其降低结肠组织凋亡的机制是通过抑制ST2L/TRPA1通路的激活,从而发挥保护作用。

3.线粒体自噬靶向调节剂:线粒体自噬是一种自我保护机制,可去除功能失调的线粒体。通过靶向线粒体自噬途径,可以恢复线粒体的动态平衡与稳态。

(1) 尿石素A:尿石素A(urolithin A,UroA)是一种源自肠道菌群的代谢物。UroA受SIRt3-Foxo3-PINK1-Parkin网络的调节,通过诱导线粒体自噬恢复了线粒体功能。Liu等[74]发现UroA显著上调了SIRt3诱导的PINK1(PTEN induced putative kinase 1)和Parkin的表达水平。同时,UroA处理后LC3BⅡ/Ⅰ的比值增加,表明线粒体自噬增加。因此可以将尿石素A作为RⅢ的潜在治疗靶点。

(2) 丁酸钠:丁酸钠是一种组蛋白去乙酰化酶抑制剂[75]。Li等[76]发现丁酸钠可以通过激活AMPK诱导线粒体自噬,增加线粒体自噬蛋白的mRNA和蛋白水平;同时,丁酸钠增加了线粒体自噬囊泡,表明其增强了猪肠上皮细胞的线粒体自噬性,减弱肠上皮屏障损伤和线粒体功能障碍。Wang等[77]发现丁酸钠激活了PINK1-Parkin通路并诱导线粒体自噬。因此,丁酸钠有望成为防治RⅢ的潜在靶点。

三、总结与展望

线粒体在肠道电离辐射损伤病理过程中的作用不容忽视,它们不仅产生诱导氧化应激损伤的ROS,并且诱导各种途径的细胞凋亡。同时,线粒体自噬也在辐射损伤中起到关键作用。因此,线粒体可作为防治肠道辐射损伤的潜在靶点之一进行深入研究。目前,已出现了具有应用前景的线粒体靶向型抗氧化剂、线粒体凋亡通路靶向调节剂、线粒体自噬靶向调节剂,为临床上减轻放射治疗对肠道的不良反应,防治肠道辐射损伤提供了新的研究方向。

利益冲突   无

作者贡献声明  王涤凡负责论文撰写及修改;蔡尚指导论文修改

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