2. 东部战区疾病预防控制中心医学防护所, 南京 210002
2. Institute of Medical Protection, Disease Control and Prevention of Eastern Theater Command, Nanjing 210002, China
随着放射诊疗技术、核医学、核工业技术的发展以及核军事活动的频繁,电离辐射(ionizing radiation,IR)已成为威胁人类健康的重要因素。IR作用于机体时,可通过直接或间接作用,传递能量至生物分子,发生一系列复杂生物化学反应,导致机体发生损伤[1],其机制主要包括诱导自由基生成、破坏生物大分子(如DNA)及改变细胞微环境等[2]。因此,研发针对上述机制的防护剂,是放射医学研究领域亟待解决的关键问题。目前,多种辐射防护剂如巯基化合物、激素类药物、中草药及细胞因子等逐渐被开发。此外,基于纳米材料及新型化合物的辐射防护效应也相继被研究,为探索IR损伤医学防护新策略提供了思路[3]。本文综述了近年来国内外报道的辐射防护剂及其机制,探讨新型辐射防护剂的研发策略。
一、清除IR诱导的自由基自由基是IR损伤的主要机制,IR作用于机体,其能量可通过直接和间接作用,诱导生物大分子(DNA等)及周围介质(水分子等)发生电离或激发,产生多种自由基(·OH、O2·-、OONO-等),形成级联效应,从而导致细胞发生氧化损伤[1, 4-5]。辐射防护最常见的机制是清除自由基,因此,开发基于自由基高效清除的辐射防护剂是放射医学领域的主要研究方向。研究表明巯基化合物(氨磷汀、胱胺、半胱胺等)[6],天然药/食物(黄酮类、苯丙烷类、二苯乙烯类、维生素C、E等)[7-8]及心血管药物(双嘧达莫、二甲双胍等)[9-10]等化合物或其代谢产物能清除IR诱导产生的自由基。此外,富氢水能选择性还原羟自由基(·OH)和亚硝酸盐阴离子(ONOO-)[11-12],有效减轻IR诱导的氧化应激反应。研究还发现多种中草药活性成分能有效清除活性氧(reactive oxygen species, ROS)减轻细胞损伤,如芍药苷[13]、姜黄素[14]、藏木香[15]等。这些辐射防护剂主要通过参与辐射化学反应对靶分子进行防护,直接吸收自由基能量或减轻其作用,阻断自由基“链式反应”,能提供氢原子促进损伤分子修复,或与靶分子、细胞结合形成复合体等,从而抑制炎症反应及细胞凋亡,减轻DNA等靶分子氧化损伤。清除自由基是辐射防护的基本策略,但其实际临床救治中局限性较大[16],因此研制新型清除自由基的辐射防护剂仍是重中之重。
细胞在氧化应激状态下,能诱导表达多种内源性保护因子如超氧化物歧化酶(superoxide dismutase,SOD)、过氧化氢酶、谷胱甘肽和褪黑素等发挥抗氧化作用。如MnSOD可通过催化氧自由基转化为H2O2,并在过氧化氢酶的作用下生成H2O和O2[17]。还原型谷胱甘肽(glutathione, GSH)的巯基活性基团能直接清除ROS,形成的氧化型GSH也可抑制ROS形成,从而减轻细胞氧化应激[18]。褪黑素作为松果体合成并分泌的天然激素,具有抗氧化、抗炎和抗癌等生理活性,能够清除IR产生的不同类型的自由基,同时对肿瘤细胞具有显著的放疗增敏效应[19]。体内存在的这些内源性活性物质具有抗氧化活性,补充或促进其分泌能催化自由基分解、平衡胞内氧化还原状态起到辐射防护的作用,也能调节机体细胞的生理活性促进细胞恢复功能[20],因此,研发此类双重效果的制剂,对辐射损伤防护大有裨益。
目前大多数传统的辐射防护剂不良反应较大、防护时间窗较窄及给药途径受限等,临床仍缺乏理想的抗辐射药物[21]。近年来,多功能纳米材料的发展逐渐应用于生物领域,其主要以载体形式建立药物递送系统增加辐射防护剂的生物利用度或利用自身固有的辐射防护活性发挥作用[22]。Wu等[23]研究发现,聚乳酸-糖醇内酯(PLGA)微球包裹辐射防护药物氨磷汀(WR2721),能增强药物的稳定性和延长防护时间窗,诸如此类的纳米载体还有壳聚糖[24]、纳米二氧化硅[25]、纳米竹炭[26]和固体脂质纳米粒[27]等。Li等[28]研究发现,聚乙二醇(PEG)修饰的纳米氧化铈具有较高的稳定性及辐射防护活性且细胞毒性较低,自身固有辐射防护活性的纳米材料还有碳纳米材料(C60富勒烯、石墨烯、碳纳米管、石墨炔等)[22, 29]、贵金属纳米材料(Ag、Pt等)[22, 30]和过渡金属硫族化合物TMDCs (MoS2、Bi2Se3等)[31-32]等。其中绝大多数纳米材料辐射防护剂的研发机制主要为清除自由基,另外,促进DNA损伤修复、诱导缺氧和抑制凋亡通路等具有前景的纳米技术正在开发应用中[22]。
二、增强DNA损伤修复IR作用于细胞,胞浆中的水能吸收大部分射线能量(>60%),剩余的能量及自由基能直接进入细胞核导致DNA损伤,细胞核中染色质结构紧密,游离水分极少,DNA对IR最敏感[33]。其中,DNA双链断裂(DSB)是IR损伤最主要也是危害最大的形式,单个DSB即可导致基因组不稳定[34]。辐射防护最重要的机制是DNA损伤修复,细胞周期中DSBs主要通过非同源DNA末端连接(NHEJ)和同源重组(HR)途径修复[35-36]。Chandra等[37]研究发现,蛋白酶体抑制剂硼替佐米能通过泛素-蛋白酶体途径作用于非同源末端连接通路蛋白,促进DSB修复,并能减轻放疗引起的骨质疏松症。Gao等[38]发现,白藜芦醇通过下调去乙酰化酶SIRT1,促进酪氨酰-tRNA合成酶(TyrRS)乙酰化,诱导细胞S期阻滞,从而促进DNA同源重组修复效率,减少IR诱导的细胞凋亡,提示促进TyrRS乙酰化及其向细胞核转移或可成为新的辐射防护靶点。
另外,虫草素作为天然的Nrf2激动剂,通过直接作用于AMPK通路,可有效缓解DNA损伤和防止细胞衰老,以预防放射性溃疡[39]。激活Toll样受体(TLR)可通过上调NF-κB信号通路,增强细胞对IR的抵抗力,TLR2、TLR4、TLR5和TLR9及其配体激动剂能显著抑制IR诱导的细胞DNA损伤,促进细胞存活[40]。1, 4-二巯基苏糖醇(DTT)能抑制p53基因表达,分别促进抗凋亡蛋白Bcl-2和抑制Bax表达及下调caspase 3/9,从而减少造血和肠道细胞凋亡和促进DNA损伤修复[41]。香草醛类衍生物VND3207通过调控p53/NOXA信号通路,触发细胞周期阻滞,提高超氧化物歧化酶水平和总抗氧化能力,降低DNA氧化损伤和脂质过氧化,从而恢复肠道菌群平衡,保护肠道免受辐射损伤[42]。
IR是DNA损伤常见的诱发因素,会抑制细胞周期进程、DNA复制甚至细胞死亡[43],促进DNA损伤修复能减轻IR危害、挽救细胞生命,对维持IR诱导的基因组稳定性具有重要的意义。NHEJ(贯穿全细胞周期)和HR(G1期受抑制)修复途径研究关注度大[35-36],其机制发掘逐渐深入,能启发相关靶点的辐射防护剂研发。此外,中草药有效成分、目的性合成新化合物、现有药物的重利用和改进,能增强DNA损伤修复。DNA作为机体最重要的生物大分子之一,开发基于增强DNA损伤修复的辐射防护剂具有广阔前景。
三、诱导辐照组织缺氧受照组织存在氧效应,即IR损伤效应随组织氧浓度升高而增强,其主要机制为氧亲电子能力较强,能夺走靶分子自身修复电子,同时与水合电子eaq-快速结合生成超氧阴离子O2·-[44],缺氧环境可通过减少ROS的生成降低IR的损伤效应[45]。研究表明,通过基因敲除或药物DMOG抑制脯氨酰羟化酶结构域PHD,能促进缺氧诱导因子HIF2和血管内皮生长因子(VEGF)表达,减缓和保护辐射诱导的胃肠道毒性[46]。Wong等[47]发现一种新药SN38023能诱导细胞缺氧,选择性的代谢DNA依赖的蛋白激酶,从而减轻小鼠IR损伤。Forristal等[48]研究发现,粒细胞集落刺激因子(G-CSF)能提高骨髓耗氧量,通过稳定缺氧诱导因子(HIF-1α)促进造血干细胞(HSCs)增殖、自我更新和归巢。HIF-1α稳定剂FG4497可协同G-CSF动员HSCs,诱导正常组织缺氧以减轻IR损伤。因此,研发能诱导组织短暂缺氧的制剂,能一定程度减轻IR损伤,但需要指出的是受照后在特定条件下供氧方可促进损伤修复[1, 44-45]。
四、阻滞旁效应受照细胞除可以通过缝隙连接方式与非受照细胞直接通讯外,还可通过传递信号分子进行细胞间通讯,称为辐射诱导旁效应(radiation-induced bystander effect, RIBE)[49]。通过RIBE传递的信号分子主要包括3类:一是分泌小分子物质(ROS、NO等)以自由扩散方式快速穿过旁细胞膜;二是分泌蛋白因子(TNFα、TGF-β1等),通过主动运输到达胞外,并与旁细胞膜受体蛋白结合进行信号转导;三是分泌含受照细胞RNA、蛋白质等物质的膜结构囊泡,以出芽的方式释放出胞外被受体细胞识别并吸收[50]。
研究发现,硒代胱氨酸衍生物DSePA可通过抑制NF-κB/IL-17/G-CSF/中性粒细胞轴,显著降低IL1-β、ICAM-1、E-selectin、IL-17和TGF-β等细胞因子分泌,预防IR诱导的放射性肺炎[51]。Yi等[52]研究表明,1, 2-丙二醇(PPD)通过提高HSCs中抗氧化酶活性,抑制细胞凋亡,并促进血清中G-CSF和IL-6水平表达,减轻全身照射诱导的小鼠造血系统损伤。Xu等[53]研究发现,外泌体介导的miRNA转移在IR诱导的旁观者效应中起着重要作用,通过抑制miR-21表达,可一定程度减弱IR的RIBE效应。RIBE在IR诱导机体损伤中的作用不容忽视,但其机制尚需进一步研究[54],基于减轻RIBE的辐射防护剂具有较大的应用前景。
五、展望综上所述,根据IR损伤机制,防护策略及防护剂的研发涵盖了IR损伤各个过程,主要着重在IR损伤初始阶段,包括清除或减少IR诱导产生的自由基、增强在生命活动中发挥重要功能的生物敏感分子(如DNA)的修复或保护其免受损伤、降低氧分压抑制IR损伤的氧效应和减轻RIBE以缓解机体损伤等。尽管经过近几十年的反复筛选验证,辐射防护剂的效果仍不理想。氨磷汀(WR2721)作为唯一被美国食品药品监督管理局(FDA)批准的辐射防护剂,去磷酸化后形成活性代谢产物WR1065,选择性地多分布于正常组织细胞中,可通过清除自由基、诱导细胞缺氧、保护DNA及促进DNA损伤修复等机制发挥辐射防护特性,但毒副作用较大,且临床效果不尽人意[55]。
研究者们开始拓展研发受辐照后早期使用能减轻IR损伤、促进恢复的药物,如常规药物修饰、中草药有效成分提纯、多功能纳米材料的生物学应用、新型化合物改进及细胞因子筛选等,通过干预细胞代谢或参与神经内分泌调控等机制,改变机体生理、生化状态,从而有效减轻副作用、延长防护时间窗、简化给药途径及促进修复,提高IR损伤患者生存质量[1, 56-57]。已有研究证实辐射防护中神经内分泌调控是有效的策略,基因和干细胞疗法作为治疗性辐射对抗措施正在开发中,希望通过组织再生尽量减少IR暴露的危害[56-59]。随着对IR损伤细胞机制的研究不断深入,多种新型辐射防护剂不断被开发,然而其最佳防护策略及制剂安全性还有待研究。
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作者贡献声明 陈军和张李栋收集文献和撰写初稿;陈乐如、毛应华和汪春晖修改和完善论文;王军平和李宏拟定写作思路、指导论文撰写
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